Human structure is important to all of us as it has been for millennia. Artists, teachers, health care providers, scientists and most children try to understand the human form from stick figure drawings to electron microscopy. Learning the form of people is of great interest to us – physicians, nurses, physician assistants, emergency medical services personnel and many, many others. Learning anatomy classically involved dissection of the deceased whether directly in the laboratory or from texts, drawings, photographs or videos. There are many wonderful resources for the study of anatomy. Developing an understanding of the human form requires significant work and a wide range of resources. In this course, we have attempted to present succinct videos of human anatomy. Some will find these images to be disturbing and these images carry a need to respect the individual who decided to donate their remains to benefit our teaching and learning. All of the dissections depicted in the following videos are from individuals who gave their remains to be used in the advancement of medical education and research after death to the Yale School of Medicine. The sequence of videos is divided into classic anatomic sections. Each video has a set of learning objectives and a brief quiz at the end. Following each section there is another quiz covering the entire section in order for you to test your knowledge. We hope these videos will help you better understand the human form, make time that you may have in the laboratory more worthwhile if you have that opportunity and help you develop an appreciation of the wonderful intricacies of people. WARNING: THESE VIDEOS CONTAIN IMAGES OF HUMAN DISSECTION. MAY BE DISTURBING TO SOME. This work was supported in part by the Kaplow Family Fund, Yale School of Medicine. COURSE CURRICULUM: ANATOMY OF THE THORAX, HEART, ABDOMEN AND PELVIS RECOMMENDED TEXT GRAY’S ANATOMY FOR STUDENTS, RICHARD L DRAKE, ELSEVIER. ONLINE AND PRINT EDITIONS ADDITIONAL RESOURCE ATLAS OF HUMAN ANATOMY, FRANK H NETTER, ELSEVIER. ONLINE AND PRINT EDITIONS. We would like to thank all of those who have contributed to the creation of this course: Charles C Duncan, MD, Producer & Director, Professor of Neurosurgery, Pediatrics and Surgery (Anatomy), Yale School of Medicine William B Stewart, PhD, Associate Producer, Narration, Anatomist, Chief Section of Human Anatomy, Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine Shanta E Kapadia, MBBS, Anatomist, Lecturer in Anatomy, Section of Human Anatomy, Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine Linda Honan, PhD, Professor, Yale School of Nursing Harry R Aslanian, MD, Associate Professor, Department of Medicine (Gastroenterology) Yale School of Medicine Jonathan Puchalski, MD, Associate Professor of Internal Medicine (Pulmonary), Yale School of Medicine Michael K. O’Brien, MD, PhD, Assistant Clinical Professor of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine Mahan Mathur, MD, Assistant Professor of Radiology and Bio-Medical Imaging, Yale School of Medicine Lei Wang, MLS & Kelly Perry, Technical, Yale Medical Library Anna Nasonova, Artist, Yale School of Architecture Rachel Hill, Artist and Technical, Yale College Philip Lapre, Technical, Section of Anatomy, Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine
Conventional radiography
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Del curso dictado por Yale University
Anatomy of the Chest, Abdomen, and Pelvis
201 calificaciones
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Introduction
This course has two main aims. The first aim is to teach you the language of medicine, and the second aim is to teach you to learn how to reason in three dimensions. Put in a more simple way, we're asking you to learn how to see and feel what you cannot see.
Conoce a los instructores
Charles DuncanProfessor of Neurosurgery, Pediatrics & Surgery (Anatomy)
Yale School of Medicine
William B. StewartAssociate Professor of Surgery and Chief, Section of Anatomy
Yale School of Medicine
Shanta KapadiaLecturer in Surgery (Gross Anatomy)
Yale School of Medicine
Hello. My name is Mahan Mathur and the following will be an introduction to radiology.
And on the course of this video series,
we're going to be covering conventional radiography.
We'll follow that up with computer tomography, CT imaging,
and then ultrasound, and finish up with magnetic resonance imaging.
And the objectives are fourfold.
For the conventional radiography portion of this lecture,
the objective is to be able to distinguish
the five basic radiographic densities on radiographs.
So we'll start up with conventional radiography.
We'll dive a little bit into
the historical context before going into the five basic densities,
the techniques that we use,
and the uses for it from a clinical perspective.
So this gentleman over here is the founder of radiology in some sense.
His name is Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen.
He was a German physicist.
And at the 8 of November of 1895, he discovered X-rays.
And for this, he was awarded the first ever Nobel Prize in physics,
and this was in 1901.
He actually never sought patent protection for this discovery,
and we are so indebted for that because it
really has revolutionized the way we practice medicine.
So, how did this all come about?
Well, back in 1895,
Rontgen and a whole bunch of physicists were
experimenting with something called cathode tubes,
particular one he use is something called a Crookes tube.
And what it was is essentially like a big, large light bulb.
And inside of it, there was cathode end which is
connected to a negative portion of a power source,
a very high voltage power source and anode
which was connected to a positive portion of that same power source.
And when you switch on this power source,
there would be bluish hue that would emanate from inside this structure.
And those are known as cathode ray.
And there were some theories that in addition to cathode ray,
there were other multiple additional rays
that were being emitted that were yet to be discovered.
So, on that day, in November of 1895,
he went to his lab,
he connected his Crookes tube into
a high voltage power source and put actually a plaque cardboard box over the tube,
switched off the lights and switched on the tubes.
And what he found was that everything was dark except there was a piece of paper,
about a meter away,
which happened to be coated with some fluorescent material,
barium platinum cyanide, that actually started glowing.
And when he switch off the power source,
he realize the glow went away.
When he switch it on, it will switch back on.
So he investigated this a little bit further because he had put
a black cardboard box over this that eliminated
the theory that this fluorescent screen can be shining due to the presence
of ultraviolet rays or visible light rays.
And also, cathode rays themselves are in linear
because they would only travel about less than 10 centimeters,
and this was placed much further away from that.
So, from that, he deduced that there was probably something else,
some other mysterious ray that was being emanated as a result of this interaction,
and he named that X-rays for the alternate symbol for the unknown, was X.
And so, he didn't know what it was and so,
he named it X-rays.
Now, in reality, what happened is something close to what I'm showing you over here.
You certainly have a cathode on which there is a filament that's tied up over here.
And when you connected to a high voltage power source,
it actually boils off a bunch of electrons.
Each electrons had an anode on the opposite side,
and they produce the X-rays in that interaction.
A lot of that interaction actually gets dissipated heat,
but about one percent will produce X-rays,
and those were the mysterious rays that caused that screen
in 1895 to shine and become fluorescent.
So this supposedly is one of the first ever X-rays that was ever produced,
and it's said that this is the hand of Rontgen's wife.
And as you can see,
some of the X-rays certainly pass through her.
And you can see that fluorescent screen of the back being very bright or white.
And some of the X-rays don't pass through her.
Not through her bones over here, which are dark,
and not through her ring as well, which is very, very dark.
And so, when you take these X-rays,
and you actually then project them onto a photographic film,
the areas that are bright in the fluorescent screen will blacken photographic film.
All the areas that are dark on the fluorescent screen will
actually be white on a photographic film.
And so, essentially, that's what an X-ray that we know it looks like.
So this is what it would look like if you just invert those color scheme.
The key idea here is that an X-rays,
when it's produce, it will interact with objects in different ways.
Some will go through the objects, in which case,
it will blacken the photographic film placed behind it,
or some will not go through the object,
it will be attenuated, in which case,
there'll be various degrees of gray or white that we see on that photographic film.
So this is the key concept.
As a result of this interaction,
we basically have five densities that we can identify a conventional radiographs.
They are: air, fat,
fluid and soft tissues bundled into one, bone, and metal.
Now, with air, everything goes through.
And so, that'll blacken the film or the cassette that we place behind the patient.
On metal, nothing will go through.
So it will be your very bright white,
and everything else in-between will be different shades of gray.
So, if we look at this radiograph of the abdomen,
just orient of a body,
up here, will be the head of the patient, down here,
will be feet of the patient,
this is the right side, that's the left side.
Have a look and see if you can in the following densities on this.
The answers I'll show you here.
This dark stuff in the left apricot is going to be air.
The brightest stuff here is going to be metal.
Bone is going to be the next brightest density that's going to be bright,
but not as bright as the metal.
Soft tissue, which is anything from the subcutaneous fat to the organs,
to fluid that's contained in the body,
will all have a relatively wide appearance.
And fat will be somewhere in-between the densities of soft tissue and air.
So you can see that it's relatively dark,
but surly not as dark as air.
So that little strip up there is going to be fat.
And if you look, there are other evidence of metal on this radiograph.
You'll see surgical clips in the left groin area of this patient,
as well as this markers that it's a supine in
left side indicating how the patient is positioned,
and which is the right side and which is the left side of the patient.
In terms of technique, this is also a key concept.
For any X-ray that's taken,
ideally you'd want to take two views in order to best visualize everything,
and they should be done orthogonal to one another at the very least.
So, here you have a patient,
and this is going to be X-ray sources of the film
that's placed in front of the patient over here.
So, that's one view of the patient standing up.
And this is another view of the patient lying down.
So we have to radiographs over here.
One of them is upright, one of them is supine.
How can you tell? Well, the first clue is always on the radiographs,
which I've actually cropped.
So you don't get the answer here.
They'll always be labeled.
And this is going to be the upright. This is going to supine.
These are metallic markers that are just placed on
the machine to make sure that you can know which one is upright and supine.
But there are also clues on the images that can help.
For example, in this image,
we can see multiple air fluid levels,
these straight lines that are contained in the bowel suggesting that this patient is
actually standing up to have water lie deepenly within the bow loops.
And you don't see those over here on the supine radiographs.
So, why do we get multiple views? Well, let me show you.
So this is an X-ray of the distal extremity,
the right lower extremity,
the ankle area in somebody who fell down and had some pain.
And if you look at this, this is the fibula, this is the tibia.
It looks pretty okay. Maybe, subtly,
there's a little bit more thickening of the skin or
the soft tissue in this region versus this region.
So, that could suggest that maybe there's been some injury there,
but it certainly looks like everything is intact.
If you follow the contours of all the bones,
we can take in a little bit more oblique manner.
And here again, for the most part looks pretty good.
Maybe there's a little bit of a subtle lucency here,
but it'd be very hard place to view for you to call that a true fracture.
And finally, if you get a lateral view,
you can see very clearly there's a crack in this bone,
this obliquely oriented dark line.
And this is going to be a fracture, very,
very difficult to detect on the frontal or oblique radiographic views.
Now, in terms of the terminology, this is important.
We call it radiograph.
Particularly, this is when we're talking about chest X-rays, PA versus AP.
PA refers to postero-anterior,
and AP is antero-posterior.
It refers to how the X-rays first entering the patient.
So if it's entering it so that it goes to the patient's back first,
we call it a postero-anterior X-ray,
or if it's entering the patient,
so it's going from the frontal side of the patient to the back,
we call it an antero-posterior X-ray.
And this is important because this can have effect on how things look.
Here's an X-ray generator that's similar in concept to what was shown earlier.
This is the cathode. This is the anode.
There'll be electrons that boil off the cathode,
go to the anode. It will produce X-rays.
And as you produce X-rays,
you can see with the PA technique,
the X-rays hit the back of the patient first,
and the heart, in this case is closer to the film.
With the AP technique,
the X-rays hit the frontal aspect to the patient first.
And you can actually see the heart is away from the film.
And so, this is an important concept in that the closer that the object is to the film,
the less prone it will be to have magnification blurry edges.
If you take that object away from the film,
it will actually magnify and have more blurry edges.
And you can actually do this experiment on your own.
If you take your finger,
and you shine a light source behind it,
perhaps from your smartphone,
if you have a light source, and you shine it on top of your finger,
and you project your finger onto a piece of paper,
the closer that finger is to the piece of paper
the more accurate the size of
the shadow that it casts in terms of what the finger looks like.
The further you move that finger away from that piece of paper,
the more magnified and blurry edged it will get.
So, how does this work practically?
If you look at these two chest X-ray on the same page and taken a few minutes apart,
one of this is a PA projection,
the other is an AP projection.
So, have a look and see if you can figure out why.
As you can see here, this will be the PA projection,
this was the AP projection.
The heart here looks much larger.
If you follow the edges around the middle of this radiograph,
it look very blurry,
certainly on the latter last bit of radiograph,
it look very, very blurry.
Here, it looks much sharper, much crisper.
If you were to look at this X-ray,
this would be a normal X-ray.
If you were to look at this, this may seem that the patient has that too much fluid,
it maybe in pulmonary edema.
So what is conventional radiography useful for?
One of the prime reason is to use it to detect fractures in patients with trauma.
It's a quick modality. It's cheap.
There's less radiation.
It can depict fractures very well.
In this instance, you can see a fibula fracture with multiple complex components.
It's also very useful when you want to place lines in patients,
whether it's in the arterial venous structures
or in the stomach or in different locations,
you can get the final location of lines.
It's a very cheap modality,
quick modality in order to look at that.
And if it's in the wrong position,
look at this line over here.
It's supposed to be in the stomach,
where do you think it's placed?
So this was actually placed in the airways.
And so, it's important to be able to detect that so you don't
initiate feeding and cause damage to the lungs.
It's great for some abdominal emergencies.
For example, free air.
So, you should never have air inside your abdominal cavity.
It should be located in the bowel.
If that air escapes the bowel,
it goes inside the abdominal cavity and causes
appearance of free air as you can see over here.
So this is an abdominal emergency.
And this patient would have to go to the operating room very quickly.
And finally, it's very useful in day-to-day chest imaging.
Particularly, when patients are placed in the intensive care unit,
often they get pneumonia,
they get aspiration, they have too much fluid overload.
And so, chest X-rays are a very good way to look at that on a day-to-day basis.
This patient has a lot of whiteness in their lungs
suggesting there's some fluid or infection that is infiltrating the lungs.
So, in summary, for conventional radiography,
these are the five basic radiographic densities: air,
fat, water and soft tissue, bone, and metal.
And it's also important to understand the different techniques that are done.
You need multiple views to see pathology.
And PA and AP is also important,
as it has a effect on the way things look.
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